1. The English Civil War
А.
Jacobine Era (1603–1625)
- the Jacobean era refers to
a period in English and Scottish history that coincides with the reign of James
I (1603 – 1625). The Jacobean era succeeds the Elizabethan era and precedes the
Caroline era, and specifically denotes a style of architecture, visual arts,
decorative arts, and literature that is predominant of that period.
James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union.
James was the son of Mary,
Queen of Scots, and a great-great-grandson of Henry VII, King of England and Lord
of Ireland (through
both his parents), uniquely positioning him to eventually accede to all three
thrones. James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months,
after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which
ended officially in 1578, though he did not gain full control of his government
until 1583. In 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England
and Ireland, Elizabeth
I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three
kingdoms for 22 years, a period known as the Jacobean era after
him, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he
based himself in England (the largest of the three realms) from 1603, only
returning to Scotland once in 1617, and styled himself
"King of Great Britain and Ireland". He
was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his
reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonisation of
the Americas began.
At 57 years and 246 days, James's reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and repeated conflicts with the English Parliament. Under James, the "Golden Age" of Elizabethan literature and drama continued, with writers such as William Shakespeare, John Donne, Ben Jonson, and Sir Francis Bacon contributing to a flourishing literary culture. James himself was a talented scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie (1597), The True Law of Free Monarchies (1598), and Basilikon Doron (1599). He sponsored the translation of the Bible that was named after him: the Authorised King James Version. Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed "the wisest fool in Christendom", an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise James's reputation and treat him as a serious and thoughtful monarch.
At 57 years and 246 days, James's reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and repeated conflicts with the English Parliament. Under James, the "Golden Age" of Elizabethan literature and drama continued, with writers such as William Shakespeare, John Donne, Ben Jonson, and Sir Francis Bacon contributing to a flourishing literary culture. James himself was a talented scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie (1597), The True Law of Free Monarchies (1598), and Basilikon Doron (1599). He sponsored the translation of the Bible that was named after him: the Authorised King James Version. Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed "the wisest fool in Christendom", an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise James's reputation and treat him as a serious and thoughtful monarch.
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| James I |
The
practical if not formal unification of England and Scotland under one ruler was
a development of the first order of importance for both nations, and would
shape their existence to the present day.
Another
development of crucial significance was the foundation of the first British
colonies on the North American continent, at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, in
Newfoundland in 1610, and at Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620, which
laid the foundation for future British settlement and the eventual formation of
both Canada and the United States of America.
The
most notorious event of James's reign occurred on November 5, 1605. On that
date, a group of English Catholics (the most famous, in later generations,
being Guy Fawkes) attempted to blow up the King and Parliament in the Palace of
Westminster. However, the Gunpowder Plot was exposed and prevented, and the convicted
plotters were hanged, drawn, and quartered.
The marriage of James' daughter Princess Elizabeth to Frederick V, Elector Palatine on February 14, 1613 was more than the social event (or celebrity wedding) of the era; the couple's union had important political and military implications. Frederick and Elizabeth's election as King and Queen of Bohemia in 1619, and the conflict that resulted, marked the beginning of the disastrous Thirty Years’ War.
The marriage of James' daughter Princess Elizabeth to Frederick V, Elector Palatine on February 14, 1613 was more than the social event (or celebrity wedding) of the era; the couple's union had important political and military implications. Frederick and Elizabeth's election as King and Queen of Bohemia in 1619, and the conflict that resulted, marked the beginning of the disastrous Thirty Years’ War.
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| Frederick V, Elector Palatine as King of Bohemia |
King
James' determination to avoid involvement in the continental conflict, even
during the "war fever" of 1623, appears in retrospect as one of the
most significant, and most positive, aspects of his reign.
Before
their Bohemian adventure, Elizabeth and Frederick were the focus of an outburst
of romantic idealism. Even after the negative turn in their fortunes, the
couple were the centre of an intellectual circle that involved significant
figures like Comenius and Samuel Hartlib, who would in time have a positive
impact on English society.
It
is important to bear in mind that the marriage of Elizabeth and Frederick had
yet another impact on the history of the British Isles: with the demise of the
Stuart dynasty in 1714, their direct descendants, the Hanoverian rulers,
succeeded to the British throne.
B. Caroline Era (1625–1649)
Charles
I (1625—1649) - Caroline means of the time of Charles I.
Charles I (19
November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from
27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was
the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the
English throne in 1603, he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of
his life. He became heir apparent to the English,
Irish and Scottish thrones on the death of his elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince
of Wales, in 1612. An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry
him to the Spanish Habsburg princess Maria Anna culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in
1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage negotiations. Two years
later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead.
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| Charles I |
From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charles's son, Charles II, in 1660.
English efforts at the colonization of North America continued throughout Charles' reign, with the foundation of new colonies in Maryland (1634), Connecticut (1635), and Rhode Island (1636) standing as important steps in the process. Development of previously-established colonies in Virginia, Massachusetts, and Newfoundland also continued. (In Massachusetts, the Pequot War of 1637 was the first major armed conflict between New England settlers and a Native American people.)
The English Civil War - the English Civil War consisted of a series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between Parliamentarians (known as Roundheads) and Royalists (known as Cavaliers) between 1642 and 1651. The first (1642–1646) and second (1648–1649) civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war (1649–1651) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651.
The Caroline era was dominated by the growing religious, political, and social conflict between the King and his supporters, termed the Royalist party, and the Puritan opposition that evolved in response to particular aspects of Charles's rule. In contrast, however, to the bloody conflict of the Thirty Years' War then raging in continental Europe, the Caroline period in Britain was one of an uneasy peace, growing darker as the civil conflict between King and Puritans worsened toward the latter part of Charles' reign. The Westminster Assembly was called in 1643, assembling clergy of the Church of England. The Assembly was able to agree to the Westminster Confession of Faith doctrinally, a consistent Reformed theological position. The Directory of Public Worship was made official in 1645, and the larger framework (now called the Westminster Standards) was adopted by the Church of Scotland. In England, the Standards were contested by Independents up to 1660.
The English Civil War - the English Civil War consisted of a series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between Parliamentarians (known as Roundheads) and Royalists (known as Cavaliers) between 1642 and 1651. The first (1642–1646) and second (1648–1649) civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war (1649–1651) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651.
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| Oliver Cromwell at the Battle of Worcester |
The Civil War led to the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son Charles II, and the replacement of the English monarchy with first the Commonwealth of England (1649–1653) and then with a Protectorate (1653–1659), under the personal rule of Oliver Cromwell. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England came to an end, and the victors consolidated the already-established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established a precedent that British monarchs could not govern without the consent of Parliament, although this concept became firmly established only with the Glorious Revolution later in the century.
Terminology - The term English Civil War appears most commonly in the singular form, despite the fact that historians frequently divide the conflict into two or three separate wars. Although the term describes events as impinging on England, from the outset the conflicts involved wars with and civil wars within both Scotland and Ireland; see Wars of the Three Kingdoms for an overview.
Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who ruled, this war also concerned itself with the manner of governing the British Isles. Historians sometimes refer to the English Civil War as the English Revolution and works such as the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica call it the Great Rebellion. Marxist historians such as Christopher Hill (1912–2003) have long favoured the term "English Revolution".
The Caroline era was dominated by the growing religious, political, and social conflict between the King and his supporters, termed the Royalist party, and the Puritan opposition that evolved in response to particular aspects of Charles's rule. In contrast, however, to the bloody conflict of the Thirty Years' War then raging in continental Europe, the Caroline period in Britain was one of an uneasy peace, growing darker as the civil conflict between King and Puritans worsened toward the latter part of Charles' reign. The Westminster Assembly was called in 1643, assembling clergy of the Church of England. The Assembly was able to agree to the Westminster Confession of Faith doctrinally, a consistent Reformed theological position. The Directory of Public Worship was made official in 1645, and the larger framework (now called the Westminster Standards) was adopted by the Church of Scotland. In England, the Standards were contested by Independents up to 1660.
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| The Westminster Assembly |
This
conflict between King and Parliament dominated society to such a degree that
other developments have seemed mere continuations of previous innovations. Some
of those continuations, however, were of major significance for the future.
At the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as a temporary advisory committee and was summoned only if and when the monarch saw fit to summon it. Once summoned, a parliament's continued existence was at the king's pleasure, since it was subject to dissolution by him at any time.
At the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as a temporary advisory committee and was summoned only if and when the monarch saw fit to summon it. Once summoned, a parliament's continued existence was at the king's pleasure, since it was subject to dissolution by him at any time.
Yet in spite of this limited role,
Parliament had, over the preceding centuries, acquired de facto powers of enough significance that
monarchs could not simply ignore them indefinitely. Without question, for a
monarch, Parliament's most indispensable power was its ability to raise tax
revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crown's disposal.
By the seventeenth century, Parliament's tax-raising powers had come to be
derived from the fact that the gentry was the only stratum of society with
the ability and authority to actually collect and remit the most meaningful
forms of taxation then available at the local level. This meant that if the
king wanted to ensure a smooth collection of revenue, he needed the
co-operation of the gentry. For all of the Crown's legal authority, by any
modern standard, its resources were limited to the extent that, if and when the
gentry refused to collect the king's taxes on a national scale, the Crown
lacked any practical means with which to compel them.
Therefore, in order to secure their
co-operation, monarchs permitted the gentry (and only the gentry) to elect
representatives to sit in the House of Commons. When assembled along with the
House of Lords, these elected representatives formed a Parliament. Parliaments
therefore, allowed representatives of the gentry to meet, primarily (at least
in the opinion of the monarch) so that they could give their sanction to
whatever taxes the monarch expected their electorate to collect. In the
process, the representatives could also confer and send policy proposals to the
king in the form of bills. However, Parliament lacked any legal means of
forcing its will upon the monarch; its only leverage with the king was the
threat of its withholding the financial means required to execute his plans.
Parliamentary concerns and the Petition of Right - any concerns were raised over Charles's marriage to a Roman Catholic, French princess Henrietta Maria, in 1625. The Parliament refused to assign him the traditional right to collect customs duties for his entire reign, deciding instead to grant it only on a provisional basis and negotiate with him.
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| Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green) during the English Civil War (1642–1645) |
Parliamentary concerns and the Petition of Right - any concerns were raised over Charles's marriage to a Roman Catholic, French princess Henrietta Maria, in 1625. The Parliament refused to assign him the traditional right to collect customs duties for his entire reign, deciding instead to grant it only on a provisional basis and negotiate with him.
Charles,
meanwhile, decided to send an expeditionary force to relieve the French Huguenots whom French
royal troops held besieged in La Rochelle. Military support for Protestants on
the Continent was, in itself, popular both in Parliament and with the
Protestant majority in general, and it had the potential to alleviate concerns
brought about by the King's marriage to a Catholic. However, Charles's
insistence on having his unpopular royal favourite George Villiers, the Duke of
Buckingham, assume command of the English force undermined that
support. Unfortunately for Charles and Buckingham, the relief expedition proved
a fiasco (1627), and Parliament, already hostile to Buckingham for his monopoly
on royal patronage,
opened impeachment proceedings against him. Charles responded by
dissolving Parliament. This move, while saving Buckingham, reinforced the
impression that Charles wanted to avoid Parliamentary scrutiny of his
ministers.
Having dissolved Parliament and unable to raise money without it, the king assembled a new one in 1628. (The elected members included Oliver Cromwell and Edward Coke.) The new Parliament drew up the Petition of Right, and Charles accepted it as a concession in order to obtain his subsidy. Amongst other things, the Petition referred to the Magna Carta. However, it did not grant him the right of tonnage and poundage, which Charles had been collecting without Parliamentary authorisation since 1625. Several of the more active members of the opposition were imprisoned, which caused some outrage; one, John Eliot, subsequently died in prison, becoming regarded as a martyr for the rights of Parliament.
Having dissolved Parliament and unable to raise money without it, the king assembled a new one in 1628. (The elected members included Oliver Cromwell and Edward Coke.) The new Parliament drew up the Petition of Right, and Charles accepted it as a concession in order to obtain his subsidy. Amongst other things, the Petition referred to the Magna Carta. However, it did not grant him the right of tonnage and poundage, which Charles had been collecting without Parliamentary authorisation since 1625. Several of the more active members of the opposition were imprisoned, which caused some outrage; one, John Eliot, subsequently died in prison, becoming regarded as a martyr for the rights of Parliament.
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| Parliamentary concerns and the Petition of Right |
EVENTS
during the “English Revolution” - Parliament
in the English constitutional framework Before the fighting, the Parliament of
England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of
government, instead functioning as a temporary advisory committee — summoned by
the monarch whenever the Crown required additional tax revenue, and subject to
dissolution by the monarch at any time. Because responsibility for collecting
taxes lay in the hands of the gentry, the English kings needed the help of that
stratum of society in order to ensure the smooth collection of that revenue. If
the gentry refused to collect the King's taxes, the Crown would lack any
practical means with which to compel them. Parliaments allowed representatives
of the gentry to meet, confer and send policy-proposals to the monarch in the
form of Bills. These representatives did not, however, have any means of
forcing their will upon the king — except by withholding the financial means
required to execute his plans.
One
of the first events to cause concern about Charles I came with his marriage to
a French Roman Catholic princess, Henrietta-Marie de Bourbon. The marriage
occurred in 1625, right after Charles came to the throne. Charles' marriage
raised the possibility that his children, including the heir to the throne,
could grow up as Catholics, a frightening prospect to Protestant England.
Charles
also wanted to take part in the conflicts underway in Europe, then immersed in
the Thirty Years' War (1618 - 1648). As ever, foreign wars required heavy
expenditure, and the Crown could raise the necessary taxes only with
Parliamentary consent (as described above). Charles experienced even more
financial difficulty when his first Parliament refused to follow the tradition
of giving him the right to collect customs duties for his entire reign,
deciding instead to grant it for only a year at a time.
Charles,
meanwhile, pressed ahead with his European wars, deciding to send an
expeditionary force to relieve the French Huguenots whom Royal French forces
held besieged in La Rochelle. The royal favourite, George Villiers, the Duke of
Buckingham, secured the command of the English force. Unfortunately for Charles
and Buckingham, the relief expedition proved a fiasco (1627), and Parliament,
already hostile to Buckingham for his monopoly on royal patronage, opened
impeachment proceedings against him. Charles responded by dissolving Parliament.
This move, while saving Buckingham, reinforced the impression that Charles
wanted to avoid Parliamentary scrutiny of his ministers.
Having
dissolved Parliament, and unable to raise money without it, the king assembled
a new one in 1628. (The elected members included Oliver Cromwell.) The new
Parliament drew up the Petition of Right, and Charles accepted it as a
concession in order to get his subsidy. Amongst other things the Petition
referred to Magna Carta.
Local grievances - in
the summer of 1642 these national troubles helped to polarize opinion, ending
indecision about which side to support or what action to take. Opposition to
Charles also arose owing to many local grievances. For example, the imposition
of drainage-schemes in The Fens negatively affected the livelihood of thousands
of people after the King awarded a number of drainage-contracts. Many regarded
the King as worse than insensitive, and this played a role in bringing a large
part of eastern England into Parliament’s camp. This sentiment brought with it
people such as the Earl of Manchester and Oliver Cromwell, each a notable
wartime adversary
of the King. Conversely, one of the leading drainage contractors, the Earl of
Lindsey, was to die fighting for the King at the Battle of Edgehill.
With
the help of the Scots, Parliament won at Marston Moor (2 July 1644), gaining
York and the north of England. Cromwell's conduct in this battle proved
decisive, and demonstrated his potential as both a political and an important
military leader. The defeat at the Battle of Lostwithiel in Cornwall, however,
marked a serious reverse for Parliament in the south-west of England.
Subsequent fighting around Newbury (27 October 1644), though tactically
indecisive, strategically gave another check to Parliament.
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| Oliver Cromwell |
In
1645 Parliament reaffirmed its determination to fight the war to a finish. It
passed the Self-denying Ordinance, by which all members of either House of
Parliament laid down their commands, and re-organized its main forces into the
New Model Army ("Army"), under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax,
with Cromwell as his second-in-command and Lieutenant-General of Horse. In two
decisive engagements — the Battles of Naseby on 14 June and of Langport on 10
July — the Parliamentarians effectively destroyed Charles' armies.
In
the remains of his English realm Charles attempted to recover a stable base of
support by consolidating the Midlands. He began to form an axis between Oxford
and Newark on Trent in Nottinghamshire. Those towns had become fortresses and
showed more reliable loyalty to him than to others. He took Leicester, which
lies between them, but found his resources exhausted. Having little opportunity
to replenish them, in May 1646 he sought shelter with a Scottish army at Southwell
in Nottinghamshire. This marked the end of the First English Civil War.
2. The Second English Civil War (1645–1649)
"And When Did You Last See Your Father?"
This
Victorian painting of a fictional event from the English Civil War (1642 -
1646) shows a Royalist house under occupation by Parliamentarians. The young
boy is being interrogated as to the whereabouts of the master of the house.
Behind him, a soldier gently holds the boy's crying sister. To the left can be
seen the children's mother, her fear and anxiety at the boy's possible answer
written in her face. To the Victorians, children were often seen as ideals of
truth and honesty. The suspense in this work comes from the dilemma the boy now
finds himself in: to tell the truth and possibly endanger his father, or lie
and maybe save him.
Charles
I took advantage of the deflection of attention away from himself to negotiate
a new agreement with the Scots, again promising church reform, on 28 December
1647. Although Charles himself remained a prisoner, this agreement led
inexorably to the Second Civil War.
A
series of Royalist uprisings throughout England and a Scottish invasion
occurred in the summer of 1648. Forces loyal to Parliament put down most of the
uprisings in England after little more than skirmishes, but uprisings (in Kent,
Essex and Cumberland), the rebellion in Wales and the Scottish invasion
involved the fighting of pitched battles and prolonged sieges.
In
the spring of 1648 unpaid Parliamentarian troops in Wales changed sides.
Colonel Thomas Horton defeated the Royalist rebels at the Battle of St. Fagans
(8 May) and the rebel leaders surrendered to Cromwell on 11 July after the
protracted two-month siege of Pembroke. Sir Thomas Fairfax defeated a Royalist
uprising in Kent at the Battle of Maidstone on 24 June. Fairfax, after his
success at Maidstone and the pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce
Essex, where, under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir Charles
Lucas, the Royalists had taken up arms in great numbers. Fairfax soon drove the
enemy into Colchester, but his first attack on the town met with a repulse and
he had to settle down to a long siege.
In
the North of England, Major-General John Lambert fought a very successful
campaign against a number of Royalist uprisings — the largest that of Sir
Marmaduke Langdale in Cumberland. Thanks to Lambert's successes, the Scottish commander,
the Duke of Hamilton, had perforce to take the western route through Carlisle
in his pro-Royalist Scottish invasion of England. The Parliamentarians under
Cromwell engaged the Scots at the Battle of Preston (17 August – 19 August).
The battle took place largely at Walton-le-Dale near Preston in Lancashire, and
resulted in a victory by the troops of Cromwell over the Royalists and Scots
commanded by Hamilton. This Parliamentarian victory marked the end of the
Second English Civil War.
Nearly
all the Royalists who had fought in the First Civil War had given their parole
not to bear arms against the Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, like
Lord Astley, refused to break their word by taking any part in the second war.
So the victors in the Second Civil War showed little mercy to those who had
brought war into the land again. On the evening of the surrender of Colchester,
Parliamentarians had Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle shot. Parliamentary
authorities sentenced the leaders of the Welsh rebels, Major-General Rowland
Laugharne, Colonel John Poyer and Colonel Rice Powel to death, but executed
Poyer alone (25 April 1649), having selected him by lot. Of five prominent
Royalist peers who had fallen into the hands of Parliament, three, the Duke of
Hamilton, the Earl of Holland, and Lord Capel, one of the Colchester prisoners
and a man of high character, were beheaded at Westminster on 9 March.
Trial of Charles I for treason - the
betrayal by Charles caused Parliament to debate whether to return the King to
power at all. Those who still supported Charles' place on the throne tried once
more to negotiate with him. Furious
that Parliament continued to countenance Charles as a ruler, the Army marched
on Parliament and conducted "Pride's Purge" (named after the
commanding officer of the operation, Thomas Pride) in December 1648. Troops
arrested 45 Members of Parliament (MPs) and kept 146 out of the chamber. They
allowed only 75 Members in, and then only at the Army's bidding. This Rump
Parliament received orders to set up a high court of justice in order to try
Charles I for treason in the name of the people of England.
At
the end of the trial the 59 Commissioners (judges) found Charles I guilty of
high treason, as a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". His
beheading took place on a scaffold in front of the Banqueting House of the
Palace of Whitehall on 30 January 1649. (After the Restoration in 1660, Charles
II executed the surviving regicides not living in exile or sentenced them to
life imprisonment.)
Cromwell was given the title Lord Protector in
1653, making him 'king in all but name' to his critics. After he died in 1658,
his son Richard Cromwell succeeded
him in the office but he was forced to abdicate within a year. For a while it
looked as if a new civil war would begin as the New Model Army split into
factions. Troops stationed in Scotland under the command of George Monck eventually
marched on London to restore order.
3. Restoration of the monarchy (1660-1688)
The monarchy
was restored in 1660, with King Charles II returning to London. In 1665, London was swept by a visitation of the plague, and then, in 1666, the capital was swept by the Great Fire, which raged for 5 days, destroying approximately
15,000 buildings. After the Restoration, there was an overall reduction in the
power of the crown, and by the 18th century England rivaled the Netherlands for
being one of the freest countries in Europe.
Charles II (29
May 1630 – 6 February 1685) was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland,
and Ireland.
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| Charles II |
Charles II's father, Charles
I, was
executed at Whitehall on 30
January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War.
Although the Parliament of Scotland proclaimed
Charles II King on 5 February 1649, England entered the period known as the English
Interregnum or the English
Commonwealth, and the country was a de facto republic, led by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell
defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3
September 1651, and Charles fled
to mainland Europe. Cromwell became virtual dictator of England,
Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France,
the Dutch Republic, and the Spanish
Netherlands.
A political crisis that followed the
death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of
the monarchy, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his
30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim. After 1660, all
legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649.
Charles's
English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed
to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England. Charles
acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious
tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the Second
Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the secret
treaty of Dover, an alliance with his first cousin King Louis
XIV of France. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third
Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, and Charles
secretly promised to convert to Catholicism at an unspecified future date.
Charles attempted to introduce religious
freedom for
Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament
forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oates's revelations
of a supposed "Popish Plot" sparked
the Exclusion Crisis when
it was revealed that Charles's brother and heir (James,
Duke of York) was a Catholic. The crisis saw the birth of the
pro-exclusion Whig and
anti-exclusion Tory parties.
Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to
murder Charles and James in 1683, some Whig leaders were executed or forced
into exile. Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone
until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman
Catholic Church on his deathbed.
Charles was popularly known as the Merry Monarch, in reference to both the
liveliness and hedonism of his court and the general relief at
the return to normality after over a decade of rule by Oliver Cromwell and
the Puritans. Charles's wife, Catherine of Braganza,
bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was
succeeded by his brother James.
CHRONOLOGY OF THE PERIOD:
1604 - Hampton Court Conference: no relaxation by the Church towards Puritans; James bans Jesuits; England and Spain make peace
1605 - Gunpowder Plot; Guy Fawkes and other Roman Catholic conspirators fail in attempt to blow up Parliament and James I.
1607 - Parliament rejects proposals for union between England and Scotland; colony of Virginia is founded at Jamestown by John Smith; Henry Hudson begins voyage to eastern Greenland and Hudson River
1610 - Hudson Bay discovered
1611 - James I's authorized version (King James Version) of the Bible is completed; English and Scottish Protestant colonists settle in Ulster
1614 - James I dissolves the "Addled Parliament" which has failed to pass any legislation
1618 - Thirty Years' War begins, lasts until 1648
1620 - Pilgrims land at Plymouth Rock on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in the "Mayflower"; found New Plymouth
1622 - James I dissolves Parliament for asserting its right to debate foreign affairs
1624 - Alliance between James I and France; Parliament votes for war against Spain; Virginia becomes crown colony
1625 - Charles I, King of England (to 1649); Charles I marries Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France; dissolves Parliament which fails to vote him money
1628 - Petition of Right; Charles I forced to accept Parliament's statement of civil rights in return for finances
1629 - Charles I dissolves Parliament and rules personally until 1640
1630 - England makes peace with France and Spain
1639 - First Bishops' War between Charles I and the Scottish Church; ends with Pacification of Dunse
1605 - Gunpowder Plot; Guy Fawkes and other Roman Catholic conspirators fail in attempt to blow up Parliament and James I.
1607 - Parliament rejects proposals for union between England and Scotland; colony of Virginia is founded at Jamestown by John Smith; Henry Hudson begins voyage to eastern Greenland and Hudson River
1610 - Hudson Bay discovered
1611 - James I's authorized version (King James Version) of the Bible is completed; English and Scottish Protestant colonists settle in Ulster
1614 - James I dissolves the "Addled Parliament" which has failed to pass any legislation
1618 - Thirty Years' War begins, lasts until 1648
1620 - Pilgrims land at Plymouth Rock on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in the "Mayflower"; found New Plymouth
1622 - James I dissolves Parliament for asserting its right to debate foreign affairs
1624 - Alliance between James I and France; Parliament votes for war against Spain; Virginia becomes crown colony
1625 - Charles I, King of England (to 1649); Charles I marries Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France; dissolves Parliament which fails to vote him money
1628 - Petition of Right; Charles I forced to accept Parliament's statement of civil rights in return for finances
1629 - Charles I dissolves Parliament and rules personally until 1640
1630 - England makes peace with France and Spain
1639 - First Bishops' War between Charles I and the Scottish Church; ends with Pacification of Dunse
1640 - Charles I summons the "Short " Parliament ; dissolved for refusal to grant money; Second Bishops' War; ends with Treaty of Ripon; The Long Parliament begins.
1641 - Triennial Act requires Parliament to be summoned every three years; Star Chamber and High Commission abolished by Parliament; Catholics in Ireland revolt; some 30,000 Protestants massacred; Grand Remonstrance of Parliament to Charles I
1642 - Charles I fails in attempt to arrest five members of Parliament and rejects Parliament's Nineteen Propositions; Civil War (until 1645) begins with battle of Edgehill between Cavaliers (Royalists) and Roundheads (Parliamentarians)
1643 - Solemn League and Covenant is signed by Parliament
1644 - Battle of Marston Moor; Oliver Cromwell defeats Prince Rupert
1642 - Charles I fails in attempt to arrest five members of Parliament and rejects Parliament's Nineteen Propositions; Civil War (until 1645) begins with battle of Edgehill between Cavaliers (Royalists) and Roundheads (Parliamentarians)
1643 - Solemn League and Covenant is signed by Parliament
1644 - Battle of Marston Moor; Oliver Cromwell defeats Prince Rupert
1645 - Formation of Cromwell's New Model Army; Battle of Naseby; Charles I defeated by Parliamentary forces
1646 - Charles I surrenders to the Scots
1647 - Scots surrender Charles I to Parliament; he escapes to the Isle of Wright; makes secret treaty with Scots.
1646 - Charles I surrenders to the Scots
1647 - Scots surrender Charles I to Parliament; he escapes to the Isle of Wright; makes secret treaty with Scots.
1648 - Scots invade England and are defeated by Cromwell at battle of Preston Pride's Purge: Presbyterians expelled from Parliament (known as the Rump Parliament); Treaty of Westphalia ends Thirty Years' War
1649 - Charles I is tried and executed; The Commonwealth, in which ; England is governed as a republic, is established and lasts until 1660; Cromwell harshly suppresses Catholic rebellions in Ireland
1650 - Charles II lands in Scotland; is proclaimed king.
1650 - Charles II lands in Scotland; is proclaimed king.
1651 - Charles II invades England and is defeated at Battle of Worcester; Charles escapes to France; First Navigation Act, England gains virtual monopoly of foreign trade
1653 - Oliver Cromwell dissolves the "Rump" and becomes Lord Protector
1654 - Treaty of Westminster between England and Dutch Republic
1653 - Oliver Cromwell dissolves the "Rump" and becomes Lord Protector
1654 - Treaty of Westminster between England and Dutch Republic
1655 - England divided into 12 military districts by Cromwell; seizes Jamaica from Spain
1656 - War with Spain (until 1659)
1658 - Oliver Cromwell dies; succeeded as Lord Protector by son Richard; Battle of the Dunes, England and France defeat Spain; England gains Dunkirk
1659 - Richard Cromwell forced to resign by the army; "Rump" Parliament restored
1658 - Oliver Cromwell dies; succeeded as Lord Protector by son Richard; Battle of the Dunes, England and France defeat Spain; England gains Dunkirk
1659 - Richard Cromwell forced to resign by the army; "Rump" Parliament restored
1660 - Convention Parliament restores Charles II to throne
1661 - Clarendon Code; "Cavalier" Parliament of Charles II passes series of repressive laws against Nonconformists; English acquire Bombay
1662 - Act of Uniformity passed in England
1661 - Clarendon Code; "Cavalier" Parliament of Charles II passes series of repressive laws against Nonconformists; English acquire Bombay
1662 - Act of Uniformity passed in England
1664 - England seizes New Amsterdam from the Dutch, change name to New York
1665 - Great Plague in London
1666 - Great Fire of London
1667 - Dutch fleet defeats the English in Medway river; treaties of Breda among Netherlands, England, France, and Denmark
1668 - Triple Alliance of England, Netherlands, and Sweden against France
1670 - Secret Treaty of Dover between Charles II of England and Louis XIV of France to restore Roman Catholicism to England; Hudson's Bay Company founded
1672 - Third Anglo-Dutch war (until 1674); William III (of Orange) becomes ruler of Netherlands
1673 - Test Act aims to deprive English Roman Catholics and Nonconformists of public office
1674 - Treaty of Westminster between England and the Netherlands
1677 - William III, ruler of the Netherlands, marries Mary, daughter of James, Duke of York, heir to the English throne
1665 - Great Plague in London
1666 - Great Fire of London
1667 - Dutch fleet defeats the English in Medway river; treaties of Breda among Netherlands, England, France, and Denmark
1668 - Triple Alliance of England, Netherlands, and Sweden against France
1670 - Secret Treaty of Dover between Charles II of England and Louis XIV of France to restore Roman Catholicism to England; Hudson's Bay Company founded
1672 - Third Anglo-Dutch war (until 1674); William III (of Orange) becomes ruler of Netherlands
1673 - Test Act aims to deprive English Roman Catholics and Nonconformists of public office
1674 - Treaty of Westminster between England and the Netherlands
1677 - William III, ruler of the Netherlands, marries Mary, daughter of James, Duke of York, heir to the English throne
1678 - 'Popish Plot' in England; Titus Oates falsely alleges a Catholic plot to murder Charles II
1679 - Act of Habeas Corpus passed, forbidding imprisonment without trial; Parliament's Bill of Exclusion against the Roman Catholic Duke of York blocked by Charles II; Parliament dismissed; Charles II rejects petitions calling for a new Parliament; petitioners become known as Whigs; their opponents (royalists) known as Tories
1681 - Whigs reintroduce Exclusion Bill; Charles II dissolves Parliament
1685 - James II of England and VII of Scotland (to 1688); rebellion by Charles II's illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, against James II is put down
1686 - James II disregards Test Act; Roman Catholics appointed to public office
1681 - Whigs reintroduce Exclusion Bill; Charles II dissolves Parliament
1685 - James II of England and VII of Scotland (to 1688); rebellion by Charles II's illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, against James II is put down
1686 - James II disregards Test Act; Roman Catholics appointed to public office
1687 - James II issues Declaration of Liberty of Conscience, extends toleration to all religions
1688 - England's 'Glorious Revolution'; William III of Orange is invited to save England from Roman Catholicism, lands in England, James II flees to France
1689 - Convention Parliament issues Bill of Rights; establishes a constitutional monarchy in Britain; bars Roman Catholics from the throne; William III and Mary II become joint monarchs of England and Scotland (to 1694), Toleration Act grants freedom of worship to dissenters in England; Grand Alliance of the League of Augsburg, England, and the Netherlands.
1689 - Convention Parliament issues Bill of Rights; establishes a constitutional monarchy in Britain; bars Roman Catholics from the throne; William III and Mary II become joint monarchs of England and Scotland (to 1694), Toleration Act grants freedom of worship to dissenters in England; Grand Alliance of the League of Augsburg, England, and the Netherlands.
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