The diplomatic foreign relations of the United Kingdom are implemented by
the Foreign
and Commonwealth Office. The Prime
Minister and numerous other agencies play a role in setting policy, and many
institutions and businesses have a voice and a role. Great Britain was the
world's foremost
power during the 18th, 19th and early 20th
centuries. Until the Suez crisis of 1956, the country was considered a
'superpower'. After 1956 however, with the loss of the empire, its dominant
role in global affairs was gradually diminished. Nevertheless, the United
Kingdom remains a major power and a permanent
member of the United Nations Security Council, a Member state of the European Union, and a founding member of the G7, G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, Council of Europe, OSCE, and the Commonwealth of Nations, which is a legacy of the British Empire.
A. History - British foreign relations since 1600 have focused on
achieving abalance of power, with no country controlling the continent of Europe. The chief enemy,
from the Hundred
Years' War until the defeat of Napoleon
(1337-1815) was France, a larger country with a more powerful army. The British were
generally successful
in their many wars, with the
notable exception of the American
War of Independence (1775–1783),
when Britain, without any major allies, was defeated by the colonials who had
the support of France, the Netherlands and Spain. A favoured diplomatic
strategy was subsidising the armies of continental allies, such as Prussia, thereby turning London's enormous financial power to military advantage.
Britain relied heavily on its Royal
Navy for security, seeking to keep
it the most powerful fleet afloat with a full complement of bases across the
globe. Historians agree that Lord Salisbury as foreign minister and prime minister in the
late 19th century was a strong and effective leader in foreign affairs. He had
a superb grasp of the issues, and proved:
a patient, pragmatic practitioner, with a keen
understanding of Britain's historic interests....He oversaw the partition of
Africa, the emergence of Germany and the United States as imperial powers, and
the transfer of British attention from the Dardanelles to Suez without
provoking a serious confrontation of the great powers.
The British built up a very large worldwide British Empire, which peaked in size in the 1920-40 era and in
wealth around 1900, then began to shrink until by the 1970s almost nothing was
left but a "Commonwealth of Nations" that had little to do. Britain finally turned its attention to the
continent, joining the European Union.
After 1900 Britain ended its "splendid isolation" by developing friendly relations with the United States and Japan
(1902). Even more important—by forming the Triple Entente with France (1904) and Russia (1907), thus
forging the anti-German alliance that fought the First World War (1914-1918). The "Special
Relationship" with
the U.S. endured; it played a pivotal role in the Second World War and the Cold
War, and is in effect today.
B. Recent history - after 1945 Britain systematically reduced its overseas
commitments. Practically all the colonies became independent. Britain reduced
its involvements in the Middle east, with the humiliating Suez Crisis of 1956 marking the end of its status as a
superpower. However Britain did forge close military ties with the United
States, France, and traditional foes such as Germany, in the NATO military
alliance. After years of debate (and rebuffs), Britain joined the Common
Market in 1973; it is now the European
Union. However it did not merge
financially, and kept the pound separate from the Euro, which kept it partly
isolated from the EUfinancial
crisis of 2011. Since 2014, debate has been
underway over whether Britain should reduce or cut its ties with the EU, with
an in/out referendum set for 23rd June, 2016.
The UK is currently establishing air and naval
facilities in the Persian Gulf, located in the UAE and Bahrain. A presence in Oman is also being considered.
C. Foreign
policy - Foreign policy initiatives of UK governments since the
1990s have included military intervention in conflicts and for peacekeeping,
humanitarian assistance programmes and increased aid spending, support for
establishment of the International
criminal court, debt
relief for developing countries, prioritisation of initiatives to address climate change, and promotion of free
trade.
Lunn et al. (2008) argue:
Three key motifs of Tony Blair’s 10-year premiership
were an activist philosophy of 'interventionism', maintaining a strong alliance
with the US and a commitment to placing Britain at the heart of Europe. While
the 'special relationship' and the question of Britain’s role in Europe have
been central to British foreign policy since the Second World
War...interventionism was a genuinely new element.
In 2013, the government of David Cameron described its
approach to foreign policy by saying:
For any given foreign policy issue, the UK potentially
has a range of options for delivering impact in our national interest. ... [W]e
have a complex network of alliances and partnerships through which we can
work.... These include – besides the EU – the UN and groupings within it, such
as the five permanent members of the Security Council (the “P5”); NATO; the
Commonwealth; the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development; the G8
and G20 groups of leading industrialised nations; and so on.
The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 highlighted a range of foreign policy initiatives
of the UK government.
Commonwealth of Nations & Ireland
Members of the Commonwealth
of Nations.
The UK has varied relationships with the
countries that make up the Commonwealth of Nations which originated from the British
Empire. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom is the head of the Commonwealth and
is head of state of 16 of its 53 member states. Those that retain the Queen as head of
state are calledCommonwealth
realms. Over time several
countries have been suspended from the Commonwealth for various reasons. Zimbabwe was suspended because of the authoritarian rule of its President and so too was Pakistan, but it has since returned. Countries which
become republics are still eligible for membership of the Commonwealth so long as they
are deemed democratic. Commonwealth nations such as Malaysia enjoyed no export duties in trade
with the UK before the UK concentrated its economic relationship with EU member
states.
The UK was once a dominant colonial power
in many countries on the continent of Africa and its multinationals remain large investors in sub-Saharan
Africa. Nowadays the UK, as a
leading member of theCommonwealth of Nations, seeks to influence Africa through its
foreign policies. Current UK disputes are with Zimbabwe over human
rights violations. Tony
Blair set up the Africa
Commission and urged rich countries to cease demanding developing
countries repay their large
debts. Relationships with developed (often former dominion) nations are strong with numerous
cultural, social and political links, mass inter-migration trade links as well
as calls for Commonwealth free trade.
2.
Ireland and World Politics
A. General characteristics - the foreign relations of Ireland are
substantially influenced by its membership of the European Union, although bilateral relations with the United
States and United Kingdom are also important to the state. It is one of the group of smaller nations in the EU, and has
traditionally followed a non-aligned foreign policy. Ireland has historically tended towards independence
in foreign military policy, thus it is not a member of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organisation and has
a longstanding policy of military neutrality. This policy has
been moderated in recent years and the country is an important staging-post for
US troops in Western Europe. According to the Irish
Defence Forces, the
neutrality policy has helped them to be successful in their contributions
to United Nations peace-keeping missions since 1960 (in the Congo
Crisis) and subsequently in Cyprus, Lebanon and Bosnia and Herzegovina.
B. Main relationships
China
Embassy of Ireland in Beijing
Ireland's official relationship with the People's
Republic of China began on 22 June 1979. Following his visit to China in 1998, former Taoiseach Bertie Ahern authorised the establishment of an Asia Strategy. The aim of this Strategy was to ensure that the
Irish Government and Irish enterprise work coherently to enhance the important
relationships between Ireland and Asia. In
recent years due to the rapid expansion of the Chinese economy, China is
becoming a key trade partner of Ireland, with over $6bn worth of bilateral trade between the two countries in 2010. In July 2013,
the Irish Tánaiste and Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade were invited to
China by the Chinese foreign minister Wang Yi on a trade mission to boost both investment and
political ties between the two countries.
Ireland has raised its concerns in the area of human
rights with China on a number of occasions. On 12 May 2007, during a visit to
Beijing, former Taoiseach Brian Cowen (then Minister for Finance) discussed human
rights issues with Chinese Foreign Minister Li
Zhaoxing. Former Tánaiste Mary
Coughlan also raised human rights
issues and concerns with visiting Chinese Vice-Premier Zeng Peiyan. Ireland also participates in the EU-China
Human Rights
Dialogue.
Concerning the Taiwan issue, Ireland follows a One-China policy. In 2007, the former Irish Minister for Foreign
Affairs, Dermot Ahern summarised the Irish position as follows:
Although Taiwan continues to exercise autonomy and to
term itself ‘The Republic of China’, this is not recognised in
international law. Taiwan’s official status is that of a Province of
China...Ireland recognises the Government of the PRC as the sole legitimate
government of China. Ireland does not maintain diplomatic relations with Taiwan
and there is no inter-Governmental contact between the two sides. A Taipei
Representative Office,
established in Dublin in 1988, has a representative function in
relation to economic and cultural promotion, but no diplomatic or political
status.
The former Minister's emphasis on the One China policy
and to the Taiwan issue being best settled through dialogue "between the
parties concerned" was consistent with Beijing's wish that the Taiwan
issue be regarded as a domestic one between Chinese on both sides of the Taiwan
Straits.
United Kingdom
Embassy of Ireland in London
Since at least the 1600s Ireland has had political
connections with the United Kingdom, with the whole island becoming a part of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1801 to 1922. From the time of Ireland
declaring itself independent from the United Kingdom in 1937, the two countries
have been involved in a dispute over the status ofNorthern Ireland. Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland formerly claimed Northern Ireland as a part of
the "national territory", though in practice the Irish
government did recognise the UK's jurisdiction over the region.
From the onset of the Troubles in 1969, the two governments sought to bring the
violence to an end. The Sunningdale
Agreement of 1973 and the Anglo-Irish
Agreement of 1985 were important steps
in this process. In 1998, both states signed the Good
Friday Agreement and
now co-operate closely to find a solution to the region's problems. Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland were amended as part of this agreement, the
territorial claim being replaced with a statement of aspiration to unite the
people of the island of Ireland. As part of the Good Friday Agreement, the
states also ended their dispute
over their respective names: Ireland and
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Each agreed
to accept and use the others' correct name.
When the Troubles were raging in Northern Ireland, the Irish
Government sought, with mixed success, to
prevent the import of weapons and ammunition through its territory by illegal
paramilitary organisations for use in their conflict with the security forces
in Northern Ireland. In 1973 three ships of the Irish
Naval Service intercepted
a ship carrying weapons from Libya which
were probably destined for Irish Republican paramilitaries. Law enforcement acts such as these additionally
improved relations with the government of the United Kingdom. However, the
independent judiciary blocked a number of attempts to extradite suspects
between 1970 and 1998 on the basis that their crime might have been 'political'
and thus contrary to international law at
the time.
Ireland is one of the parties to the Rockall continental shelf dispute that also involves Denmark, Iceland, and the United Kingdom. Ireland and the United Kingdom have signed a
boundary agreement in the Rockall area. However, neither have concluded similar
agreements with Iceland or Denmark (on behalf of the Faroe Islands) and the matter remains under negotiation. Iceland
now claims a substantial area of
the continental
shelf to the west of Ireland, to a
point 49°48'N 19°00'W, which is further south than Ireland.
The controversial Sellafield nuclear
fuel reprocessing plant in
north-western England has also been a contentious issue between the two
governments. The Irish government has sought the closure of the plant, taking a
case against the UK government under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. However, the European
Court of Justice found
that the case should have been dealt with under EU law. In 2006, however, both countries came to a
friendly agreement which enabled both the Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland and the Garda
Síochána (Irish Police Force) access to
the site to conduct investigations.
United States
Embassy of Ireland in the USA
The United States recognised the Irish Free State on
28 June 1924 with diplomatic relations being established on 7 October 1924. In
1927, the United States opened an American Legation in Dublin. Due to the ancestral ties between the two
countries, Ireland and the U.S. have a strong relationship, both politically
and economically, with the U.S. being Ireland's biggest trading partner since
2000. Ireland also receives more foreign
direct investment from
the U.S. than many larger nations, with investments in Ireland equal to France and Germany combined and, in 2012, more than all of developing Asia put together.
The use of Shannon Airport as a stop-over point for US
forces en route to Iraq has
caused domestic controversy in Ireland. Opponents of this policy brought an unsuccessful High
Court case against the government in
2003, arguing that this use of Irish airspace violated Irish neutrality. Restrictions such as carrying no arms,
ammunition, or explosives, and that the flights in question did not form part
of military exercises or operations were put in place to defend Irish
neutrality, however allegations have been made against the Central
Intelligence Agency that
the airport has been used between 30 and 50 times for illegal extraordinary
rendition flights to the U.S.
In 1995 a decision was made by the U.S. government to
appoint a Special Envoy to Northern Ireland to help with the Northern
Ireland peace process. During
the 2008 presidential campaign in the United States, however, Democratic Party candidate Barack Obama was reported as having questioned the necessity
to keep a US Special Envoy for Northern Ireland. His remarks caused uproar within
the Republican Party, with Senator John McCain questioning his leadership abilities and his
commitment to the ongoing peace process in Northern Ireland.
As of 2015, Anne
Anderson is the Irish ambassador to the
United States while Kevin O'Malley is the U.S. ambassador to Ireland.
Europe and the European Union - Ireland is consistently the most pro-European of EU member states, with 77% of the population
approving of EU membership according to a Eurobarometer poll in 2006. Ireland was a founding member of the euro single
currency. In May 2004, Ireland was one of only three countries to open its
borders to workers from the 10 new member states. EU issues important to
Ireland include the Common
Agricultural Policy,
corporation tax
harmonisation and
the EU
Constitution. The Irish
electorate declined to ratify the Treaty of Lisbon in 2008. A second referendum in October 2009
passed the bill, allowing the treaty to be ratified before it was ratified
legal guarantees on issues such as the right of Ireland to remain militarily neutral
(and not engage in any kind of "European army"), the right of the
state to maintain its low levels of corporation tax and that the treaty would
not change the right to life article in the Irish constitution making abortion illegal and an act of murder under
Irish constitutional law.
As of 2013, Paschal Donohoe is Minister of State for European Affairs at the Department of Foreign Affairs. Ireland has held the Presidency of the Council of the European
Union on seven occasions (in 1975,
1979, 1984, 1990, 1996, 2004 and 2013).
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