THE FIRST WORLD WAR IN GREAT BRITAIN HISTORY (1914-1918)

1. General information 

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland—then consisting of England, Scotland, Wales, and the whole of Ireland—was one of the Allied Powers during the First World War of 1914–1918, fighting against the Central Powers (the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Bulgaria). The state's armed forces were reorganised—the war marked the creation of the Royal Air Force, for example—and increased in size because of the introduction, in January 1916, of forced conscription for the first time in the kingdom's history as well as the raising of the largest all-volunteer army in history, known as Kitchener's Army, of more than two million men. The outbreak of war has generally been regarded as a socially unifying event, although this view has been challenged by more recent scholarship. In any case, responses in the United Kingdom in 1914 were similar to those amongst populations across Europe.

On the eve of war, there was serious domestic unrest in the UK (amongst the labour and suffrage movements and especially in Ireland) but much of the population rapidly rallied behind the government. Significant sacrifices were made in the name of defeating the Empire's enemies and many those who could not fight contributing to philanthropic and humanitarian causes. Fearing food shortages and labour shortfalls, the government passed legislation such as the Defence of the Realm Act 1914, to give it new powers. The war saw a move away from the idea of "business as usual" under prime minister H. H. Asquith, and towards a state of total war (complete state intervention in public affairs) under David Lloyd George, the first time this had been seen in Britain. The war also witnessed the first aerial bombardments of cities in Britain.

British recruiting poster from 1915

Newspapers played an important role in maintaining popular support for the war. Large quantities of propaganda were produced by the government under the guidance of such journalists as Charles Masterman and newspaper owners such as Lord Beaverbrook. By adapting to the changing demographics of the workforce (or the "dilution of labour", as it was termed), war-related industries grew rapidly, and production increased, as concessions were quickly made to trade unions. In that regard, the war is also credited by some with drawing women into mainstream employment for the first time. Debates continue about the impact the war had on women's emancipation, given that a large number of women were granted the vote for the first time in 1918. The experience of individual women during the war varied; much depended on locality, age, marital status and occupation.

The civilian death rate rose due to food shortages and Spanish Flu, which hit the country in 1918. Military deaths are estimated to have exceeded 850,000. The Empire reached its zenith at the conclusion of peace negotiations. However, the war heightened not only imperial loyalties but also individual national identities in the dominions (Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa) and India. Irish nationalists after 1916 moved from collaboration with London to demands for immediate independence (see Easter Rising), a move given great impetus by the Conscription Crisis of 1918.

Military historians continue to debate matters of tactics and strategy. However, in terms of memory of the war, historian Adrian Gregory argues that: the verdict of popular culture is more or less unanimous. The First World War was stupid, tragic and futile. The stupidity of the war has been a theme of growing strength since the 1920s. From Robert Graves, through 'Oh! What a Lovely War' to 'Blackadder Goes Forth,' the criminal idiocy of the British High Command has become an article of faith."

2. Government 

The British Empire entered the World War with Herbert Henry Asquith of the Liberal Party as British prime minister. Asquith declared war on the German Empire on 4 August 1914, in response to the demands for military passage that were forced upon Belgium by Germany, and the expiration of Britain's own ultimatum at 11 p.m. that day. Britain's reasons for declaring war were complex: the Treaty of London of 1839 had committed the United Kingdom to safeguard Belgium's neutrality in the event of invasion, but the Foreign Office had already concluded that the treaty might not apply. Extensive secret talks regarding Britain's 'moral commitment' to France had been going on since 1905, but most members of Asquith's cabinet were not privy to them until 1911. This lack of proof that war was unavoidable had led to disagreement within the cabinet as late as 31 July.

Asquith in 1908

Asquith's Liberal government was brought down in May 1915, due in particular to a crisis in inadequate artillery shell production and the failed Gallipoli Campaign in the Dardanelles. Reluctant to give in to demands for an election, Asquith proceeded to form a new coalition government on 25 May, with the majority of the new cabinet coming from his own Liberal party and the Unionist (Conservative) party brought in to shore up the government. By January 1915, 184 members of parliament were serving with the armed forces.

Lloyd George as Prime Minister - this coalition government lasted until 1916, when the Unionists became dissatisfied with Asquith and the Liberals' conduct of affairs, particularly over the Battle of the Somme. What would prove to be the last majority-Liberal government collapsed as a result of the political manoeuvrings of Andrew Bonar Law (leader of the Conservatives), Sir Edward Carson (leader of the Ulster Unionists), and David Lloyd George (then a minister in the cabinet). Law, who had few allies outside his own party, lacked sufficient support to form a new coalition; the Liberal Lloyd George, on the other hand, enjoyed much wider support and duly formed a majority-Conservative coalition government. Asquith was still the party head but he and his followers moved to the opposition benches in Parliament.

Lloyd George in 1916

Lloyd George immediately set about transforming the British war effort, taking firm control of both military and domestic policy. In the first 235 days of its existence, the War Cabinet met 200 times. Its creation marked the transition to a state of total war—the idea that every man, woman and child should play his or her part in the war effort. Moreover, it was decided that members of the government should be the men who controlled the war effort, primarily utilising the power they had been given under the Defence of the Realm Act. For the first time, the government could react quickly, without endless bureaucracy to tie it down, and with up-to-date statistics on such matters as the state of the merchant navy and farm production. The policy marked a distinct shift away from Asquith's initial policy of laissez-faire, which had been characterised by Winston Churchill's declaration of "business as usual" in November 1914. The success of Lloyd George's government can also be attributed to a general lack of desire for an election, and the practical absence of dissent that this brought about.

In rapid succession in spring 1918 came a series of military and political crises. The Germans, having moved troops from the Eastern front and retrained them in new tactics, now had more soldiers on the Western Front than the Allies. On 21 March 1918 Germany launched a full scale Spring Offensive against the British and French lines, hoping for victory on the battlefield before United States troops arrived in numbers. The Allied armies fell back 40 miles in confusion, and facing defeat London realized it needed more troops to fight a mobile war. Lloyd George found half a million soldiers and rushed them to France, asked American President Woodrow Wilson for immediate help, and agreed to the appointment of the French Marshal Foch as commander in chief on the Western Front, so that Allied forces could be coordinated to handle the German offensive.

Despite strong warnings that it was a bad idea, the War Cabinet decided to impose conscription on Ireland in 1918. The main reason was that labour in Britain demanded it as the price for cutting back on exemptions for certain workers. Labour wanted the principle established that no one was exempt, but it did not demand that conscription should actually take place in Ireland. The proposal was enacted, but never enforced. The Roman Catholic bishops for the first time entered the fray, calling for open resistance to compulsory military service, while the majority of Irish nationalists moved to supporting the intransigent Sinn Féin movement (away from the constitutional Irish National Party). This proved a decisive moment, marking the end of Irish willingness to stay inside the Union.

On 7 May 1918, a senior army officer on active duty, Major-General Sir Frederick Maurice, prompted a second crisis when he went public with allegations that Lloyd George had lied to Parliament on military matters. Asquith, the Liberal leader in the House, took up the allegations and attacked Lloyd George (also a Liberal). While Asquith's presentation was poor, Lloyd George vigorously defended his position, treating the debate as a vote of confidence. He won over the House with a powerful refutation of Maurice's allegations. The main results were to strengthen Lloyd George, weaken Asquith, end public criticism of overall strategy, and strengthen civilian control of the military. Meanwhile, the German offensive stalled and was ultimately reversed. Victory came on November 11, 1918.

Collapse of the Liberal Party - in the general election of 1918, Lloyd George, "the Man Who Won the War", led his coalition into another khaki election and won a sweeping victory over the Asquithian Liberals and the newly emerging Labour Party. Lloyd George and the Conservative leader Andrew Bonar Law wrote a joint letter of support to candidates to indicate they were considered the official Coalition candidates – this "coupon", as it became known, was issued against many sitting Liberal Members of Parliament to devastating effect. Asquith and most of his Liberal colleagues lost their seats. Lloyd George still claimed to be leading a Liberal government, but he was increasingly under the influence of the rejuvenated Conservative party. The Liberal party never recovered.

Monarchy - the British Royal House faced a serious problem during the First World War because of its blood ties to the ruling family of Germany, Britain's prime adversary in the war. Before the war, the British royal family had been known as the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. In 1910, George V became King of the United Kingdom on the death of his father, King Edward VII, and remained king throughout the war. He was the first cousin of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, who came to symbolise all the horrors of the war. Queen Mary, although British like her mother, was the daughter of the Duke of Teck, a descendant of the German Royal House of Württemberg. During the war H. G. Wells wrote about Britain's "alien and uninspiring court", and George famously replied: "I may be uninspiring, but I'll be damned if I'm alien."

George V

On 17 July 1917, to appease British nationalist feelings, King George issued an Order in Council that changed the name of the British Royal Family to the House of Windsor. He specifically adopted Windsor as the surname for all descendants of Queen Victoria then living in the United Kingdom, excluding women who married into other families and their descendants. He and his relatives who were British subjects relinquished the use of all German titles and styles, and adopted English surnames. George compensated several of his male relatives by creating them British peers. Thus, his cousin, Prince Louis of Battenberg, became Louis Mountbatten, 1st Marquess of Milford Haven, while his brother-in-law, the Duke of Teck, became Adolphus Cambridge, 1st Marquess of Cambridge. Others, such as Princess Marie Louise of Schleswig-Holstein and Princess Helena Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, simply stopped using their territorial designations. The system for titling members of the royal family was also simplified. Relatives of the British royal family who fought on the German side were simply cut off; their British peerages were suspended by a 1919 Order in Council under the provisions of the Titles Deprivation Act 1917.

 

Developments in Russia posed another set of issues for the monarchy. Tsar Nicholas II of Russia was King George's first cousin and the two monarchs looked very much alike. When Nicholas was overthrown in the Russian Revolution of 1917, the British Government was prepared to offer asylum to the Tsar and his family. However, worsening conditions for the British people, and fears that revolution might come to the British Isles, led George V to think that the presence of the Romanovs in the United Kingdom might seem inappropriate to the public. Records of the King's private secretary, Lord Stamfordham, suggest that George V opposed the granting of asylum for the Romanovs, against the advice of Lloyd George.

The Prince of Wales – the future Edward VIII – was keen to participate in the war but the government refused to allow it, citing the immense harm that would occur if the heir to the throne were captured. Despite this, Edward witnessed trench warfare at first hand and attempted to visit the front line as often as he could, for which he was awarded the Military Cross in 1916. His role in the war, although limited, led to his great popularity among veterans of the conflict.

Other members of the royal family were similarly involved. The Prince Albert, Duke of York (later George VI), was commissioned in the Royal Navy and saw action as a turret officer aboard HMS Collingwood against at the battle of Jutland but saw no further action in the war, largely because of ill health. Princess Mary, the King's only daughter, visited hospitals and welfare organisations with her mother, assisting with projects to give comfort to British servicemen and assistance to their families. One of these projects was Princess Mary's Christmas Gift Fund, through which £162,000 worth of gifts was sent to all British soldiers and sailors for Christmas 1914. She took an active role in promoting the Girl Guide movement, the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD), the Land Girls and in 1918, she took a nursing course and went to work at Great Ormond Street Hospital.

Defence of the Realm Act - the first Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) was passed on 8 August 1914, during the early weeks of the war, though in the next few months its provisions were extended. It gave the government wide-ranging powers, such as the ability to requisition buildings or land needed for the war effort. Some of the things the British public were prohibited from doing included loitering under railway bridges, feeding wild animals and discussing naval and military matters. British Summer Time was also introduced.  Alcoholic beverages were now to be watered down, pub closing times were brought forward from 12.30 am to 10 pm, and, from August 1916, Londoners were no longer able to whistle for a cab between 10 pm and 7 am. It has been criticised for both its strength and its use of the death penalty as a deterrent – although the act itself did not refer to the death penalty, it made provision for civilians breaking these rules to be tried in army courts martial, where the maximum penalty was death.

His Majesty's forces

Army - the British Army during World War I was small in size when compared to the other major European powers. In 1914, the British had a small, largely urban English, volunteer force of 400,000 soldiers, almost half of whom were posted overseas to garrison the British Empire. (In August 1914, 74 of the 157 infantry battalions and 12 of the 31 cavalry regiments were posted overseas.) This total included the Regular Army and reservists in the Territorial Force. Together they formed the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), for service in France and became known as the Old Contemptibles. The mass of volunteers in 1914–1915, popularly known as Kitchener's Army, was destined to go into action at the battle of the Somme. In January 1916, conscription was introduced, and by the end of 1918, the army had reached its peak of strength of four million men.

Royal Navy - the Royal Navy at the start of the war was the largest navy in the world due, in the most part, to The Naval Defence Act 1889 and the two-power standard which called for the navy to maintain a number of battleships such as their strength was at least equal to the combined strength of the next two largest navies in the world, which at that point were France and Russia.

Ships of the 2nd Battle Squadron of the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet

The major part of the Royal Navy's strength was deployed at home in the Grand Fleet, with the primary aim of drawing the German High Seas Fleet into an engagement. No decisive victory ever came. The Royal Navy and the German Imperial Navy did come into contact, notably in the battle of Heligoland Bight, and the battle of Jutland. In view of their inferior numbers and firepower, the Germans devised a plan to draw part of the British fleet into a trap and put it into effect at Jutland in May 1916, but the result was inconclusive. In August 1916, the High Seas Fleet tried a similar enticement operation and was "lucky to escape annihilation". The lessons learned by the Royal Navy at Jutland made it a more effective force in the future.

In 1914, the navy had also formed the 63rd (Royal Naval) Division from reservists, and this served extensively in the Mediterranean and on the Western Front. Almost half of the Royal Navy casualties during the War were sustained by this division, fighting on land and not at sea

British air services - at the start of the war, the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), commanded by David Henderson, was sent to France and was first used for aerial spotting in September 1914, but only became efficient when they perfected the use of wireless communication at Aubers Ridge on 9 May 1915. Aerial photography was attempted during 1914, but again only became effective the next year. In 1915 Hugh Trenchard replaced Henderson and the RFC adopted an aggressive posture. By 1918, photographic images could be taken from 15,000 feet (4,600 m), and interpreted by over 3,000 personnel. Planes did not carry parachutes until 1918, though they had been available since before the war. On 17 August 1917, General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council on the future of air power. Because of its potential for the 'devastation of enemy lands and the destruction of industrial and populous centres on a vast scale', he recommended a new air service be formed that would be on a level with the army and navy. The formation of the new service however would make the under utilised men and machines of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) available for action across the Western Front, as well as ending the inter-service rivalries that at times had adversely affected aircraft procurement. On 1 April 1918, the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form a new service, the Royal Air Force (RAF).

Map of the Western Front, 1915–16

Urban centres, with their poverty and unemployment were favourite recruiting grounds of the regular British army. Dundee, where the female dominated jute industry limited male employment had one of the highest proportion of reservists and serving soldiers than almost any other British city. Concern for their families' standard of living made men hesitate to enlist; voluntary enlistment rates went up after the government guaranteed a weekly stipend for life to the survivors of men who were killed or disabled. After the introduction of conscription from January 1916 every part of the country was affected.

The policy of relying on volunteers had sharply reduced the capacity of heavy industry to produce the munitions needed for the war. Historian R. J. Q. Adams reports that 19% of the men in the iron and steel industry entered the Army, 22% of the miners, 20% in the engineering trades, 24% in the electrical industries, 16% among small arms craftsmen, and 24% of the men who had been engaged in making high explosives. In response critical industries were prioritised over the army ("reserved occupations"), including munitions, food production and merchant shipping.

Conscription Crisis of 1918 - in April 1918 legislation was brought forward which allowed for extension of conscription to Ireland. Though this ultimately never materialised, the effect was "disastrous". Despite significant numbers volunteering for Irish regiments, the idea of enforced conscription proved unpopular. The reaction was based particularly on the fact that implementation of conscription in Ireland was linked to a pledged "measure of self-government in Ireland". The linking of conscription and Home Rule in this way outraged the Irish parties at Westminster, who walked out in protest and returned to Ireland to organise opposition. As a result, a general strike was called, and on 23 April 1918, work was stopped in railways, docks, factories, mills, theatres, cinemas, trams, public services, shipyards, newspapers, shops, and even official munitions factories. The strike was described as "complete and entire, an unprecedented event outside the continental countries". Ultimately the effect was a total loss of interest in Home Rule and of popular support for the nationalist Irish Party who were defeated outright by the separatist republican Sinn Féin party in the December 1918 Irish general election, one of the precursors of the Anglo-Irish War.

CHRONOLOGY OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR:

1914

June

28. Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife at Sarajevo, Bosnia.

July

28. Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.

29. Russian mobilization ordered.

August

1. Germany declares war on Russia.

1. France orders mobilization.

2. Germany demands free passage through Belgium.

3. Germany declares war on France.

3. Belgium rejects Germany's demand.

4. Germany at war with Belgium. Troops under Gen. Von Kluck cross border. Halted at Liege.

4. Great Britain at war with Germany. Kitchener becomes Secretary of War.

5. President Wilson tenders good offices of United States interests of peace.

6. Austria-Hungary at war with Russia.

7. French forces invade Alsace. Gen. Joffre in supreme command of French army.

7. Montenegro at war with Austria.

7. Great Britain's Expeditionary Force lands at Ostend, Calais and Dunkirk.

8. Serbia at war with Germany.

12. Great Britain at war with Austria-Hungary.

12. Montenegro at war with Germany.

17. Belgian capital removed from Brussels to Antwerp.

19. Canadian Parliament authorises raising expeditionary force.

20. Germans occupy Brussels.

23. Japan at war with Germany. Begins attack on Tsingtau.

24. Germans enter France near Lille.

25. Austria at war with Japan.

26. Viviani becomes premier of France.

28. Austria declares war on Belgium.

30. Amiens occupied by Germans.

31. Russian army of invasion in East Prussia defeated at Tannenberg by Germans under Von Hindenburg.

September

3. Paris placed in state of siege: Government transferred to Bordeaux.

6-10. Battle of Marne. Von Kluck is beaten by Gen. Joffre, and the German army retreats from Paris to the Soissons-Rheims line.

14. French reoccupy Amiens and Rheims.

29. Antwerp bombardment begins.

October

2. British Admiralty announces intention to mine North Sea areas.

9. Antwerp surrenders to Germans. Government removed to Ostend.

13. British occupy Ypres.

14. Canadian Expeditionary Force of 32,000 men lands at Plymouth.

15. Germans occupy Ostend. Belgian government removed to Havre, France.

November

5. Great Britain and France declare war on Turkey.

5. Cyprus annexed by Great Britain.

December

8. Off the Falkland Isles, British squadron under command of Rear-Admiral Sturdee, sinks three of the German cruisers which had destroyed the Good Hope and Monmouth on Nov. 1. The Dresden escapes.

16. German squadron bombards Hartlepool, Scarborough and Whitby on east coast of England.

1915

February

10. Prussians defeated by Germans in Battle of Masurian Lakes.

18. German submarine 'blockade' of British Isles begins.

25. Allied fleet destroys outer forts of Dardanelles.

March

2. Allied troops land at Kum-Kale, on Asiatic side of Dardanelles.

10. British take Neuve Chapelle in Flanders battle.

22. Austrian fortress of Przmysl surrenders to Russians.

April

22. Poison gas first used by Germans in attack on Canadians at Ypres, Belgium.

May

1. American steamer Gulflight torpedoed off Scilly Isles by German submarine; 3 lives lost.

2. British South Africa troops under General Botha capture Otymbingue, German Southwest Africa.

7. Germans capture Libau, Russian Baltic port.

7. Lusitania, Cunard liner, sunk by German submarine off Kinsale Head, Irish coast, with loss of 1152 lives; 102 Americans.

23. Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary and begins invasion on a 60 mile front.

31. German Zeppelins bombard suburbs of London.

June

4-6. German aircraft bomb English towns.

15. Allied aircraft bombs Karlsruhe, Baden, in retaliation.

22. Lemberg recaptured by Austrians.

26. Montenegrins enter Scutari, Albania.

July

9. German Southwest African surrenders to British South African troops under Gen. Botha.

August

5. Warsaw captured by Germans.

6. Gallipoli Peninsula campaign enters a second stage with the debarkation of a new force of British troops in Suvla Bay, on the west of the peninsula.

8. Russians defeat German fleet of 9 battleships and 12 cruisers at entrance of Gulf of Riga.

19. Arabic, White Star liner, sunk by submarine off Fastnet; 44 lives

lost; 2 Americans.

25. Brest-Litovsk, Russian fortress, captured by Austro-Germans.

28. Italians reach Cima Cista, north-east of Trent.

30. British submarine attacks Constantinople and damages the Galata Bridge.

31. Lutsk, Russian fortress, captured by Austrians.

September

6. Czar Nicholas of Russia assumes command of Russian armies. Grand Duke Nicholas is transferred to the Caucasus.

25. Allies open offensive on Western front and occupy Lens.

October

5. Franco-British force lands at Salonika and Greek ministry resigns.

9. Belgrade again occupied by Austro-Germans.

12. Edith Cavell, English nurse, shot by Germans for aiding British

prisoners to escape from Belgium.

13. London bombarded by Zeppelins; 55 persons killed; 114 injured.

14. Bulgaria at war with Serbia.

15. Great Britain declares war on Bulgaria.

17. France at war with Bulgaria.

19. Italy and Russia at war with Bulgaria.

29. Briand becomes premier of France, succeeding Viviani.

November

5. Nish, Serbian war capital, captured by Bulgarians.

24. Serbian government transferred to Scutari, Albania.

December

4. Henry Ford, with large party of peace advocates, sails for Europe on chartered steamer Oscar II, with the object of ending the war.

13. Serbia in hands of enemy, Allied forces abandoning last positions and retiring across Greek frontier.

15. Gen. Sir Douglas Haig succeeds Field Marshal Sir John French as Commander-in-Chief of British forces in France.

20. Dardanelles expedition ends; British troops begin withdrawal from positions on Suvla Bay and Gallipoli Peninsula.

22. Henry Ford leaves his peace party at Christiania and returns to the United States.

1916

January

11. Greek island of Corfu occupied by French.

13. Cettinje, capital of Montenegro, occupied by Austrians.

29-31. German Zeppelins bomb Paris and towns in England.

February

10. British conscription law goes into effect.

19. Kamerun, German colony in Africa, conquered by British forces.

21. Battle of Verdun begins. Germans take Haumont.

25. Fort Douaumont falls to Germans in Verdun battle.

March

9. Germany declares war on Portugal on the latter's refusal to give up seized ships.

15. Austria-Hungary at war with Portugal.

24. Sussex, French cross-channel steamer, with many Americans aboard, sunk by submarine off Dieppe. No Americans lost.

31. Melancourt taken by Germans in Verdun Battle.

April

19. President Wilson publicly warns Germany not to pursue submarine policy.

20. Russian troops landed at Marseilles for service on Frenchfront.

24. Irish rebellion begins in Dublin. Republic declared. Patrick Pearse announced as first President.

29. British force of 9000 men, under Gen. Townshend, besieged in Kut-el-Amara, surrenders to Turks.

30. Irish rebellion ends with unconditional surrender of Pearse and other leaders, who are tried by court-martial and executed.

May

8. Cymrio, White Star liner, torpedoed off Irish coast.

14. Italian positions penetrated by Austrians.

15. Vimy Ridge gained by British.

26. Bulgarians invade Greece and occupy forts on the Struma.

31. Jutland naval battle; British and German fleets engaged;heavy

losses on both sides.

June

5. Kitchener, British Secretary of War, loses his life when the cruiser Hampshire, on which he was voyaging to Russia, is sunk off the Orkney Islands, Scotland.

6. Germans capture Fort Vaux in Verdun attack.

21. Allies demand Greek demobilization.

27. King Constantine orders demobilization of Greek army.

July

1. British and French attack north and south of the Somme.

14. British penetrate German second line, using cavalry.

15. Longueval captured by British.

25. Pozieres occupied by British.

30. British and French advance between Delville Wood and the

Somme.

August

3. French recapture Fleury.

27. Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary.

28. Italy at war with Germany.

28. Germany at war with Romania.

31. Bulgaria at war with Romania. Turkey at war with Romania.

September

2. Bulgarian forces invade Romania along the Dobrudja frontier.

13. Italians defeat Austrians on the Carso.

15. British capture Flers, Courcelette, and other Germans positions on Western front, using tanks.

26. Combles and Thiepval captured by British and French.

29. Romanians begin retreat from Transylvania.

October

24. Fort Douaumont recaptured by French.

November

2. Fort Vaux evacuated by Germans.

7. Woodrow Wilson re-elected President of the United States.

13. British advance along the Ancre.

21. Britannic, mammoth British hospital ship, sunk by mine in Aegean Sea.

22. Emperor Franz Josef of Austria-Hungary, dies. Succeeded by Charles I.

23. German warships bombard English coast.

28. Romanian government is transferred to Jassy.

December

1. Allied troops enter Athens to insist upon surrender of Greek arms and munitions.

6. Bucharest, capital of Romania, captured by Austro-Germans.

7. David Lloyd George succeeds Asquith as Prime Minister.

15. French complete recapture of ground taken by Germans in Verdun battle.

18. President Wilson makes peace overtures to belligerents.

26. Germany replies to President's note and suggests a peace conference.

30. French government on behalf of Entente Allies replies to President Wilson's note and refuses to discuss peace till Germany agrees to give restitution, reparation and guarantees.

1917

January

1. Turkey declares its independence of suzerainty of European powers.

2. Ivernia, Cunard liner, is sunk in Mediterranean.

February

3. United States severs diplomatic relations with Germany. Count Von Bernstorff is handed his passports.

7. California, Anchor liner, is sunk off Irish coast.

13. Afric, White Star liner, sunk by submarine.

17. British troops on the Ancre capture German positions.

25. Laconia, Cunard liner, sunk off Irish coast.

26. Kut-el-Amara recaptured from Turks by new British Mesopotamian expedition under command of Gen. Sir Stanley Maude.

28. United States government makes public a communication from Germans to Mexico proposing an alliance, and offering as a reward

the return of Mexico's lost territory in Texas, New Mexico and Arizona.

28. Submarine campaign of Germans results in the sinking of 134 vessels

March

3. British advance on Bapaume.

3. Mexico denies having received an offer from Germany suggesting an alliance.

10. Russian Czar suspends sittings of the Duma.

11. Bagdad captured by British forces under Gen. Maude.

14. China breaks with Germany.

15. Czar Nicholas abdicates. Prince Lvoff heads new cabinet.

17. Bapaume falls to British. Roye and Lassigny occupied by French.

18. Peronne, Chaulnes, Nesle and Noyon evacuated by Germans, who retire on an 85-mile front.

18. City of Memphis, Illinois, and Vigilancia, American ships, torpedoed.

19. Alexander Ribot becomes French premier, succeeding Briand.

21. Healdton, American ship, bound from Philadelphia to Rotterdam, sunk without warning; 21 men lost.

26-31. British advance on Cambrai.

April

1. Aztec, American armed ship, sunk in submarine zone.

5. Missourian, American steamer, sunk in Mediterranean.

6. United States declares war on Germany.

7. Cuba and Panama at war with Germany.

8. Austria-Hungary breaks with United States.

9. Germans retreat before British on long front.

9. Bolivia breaks with Germany.

13. Vimy, Givenchy, Bailleul and positions about Lens taken by Canadians.

20. Turkey breaks with United States.

22. President Wilson suggests to the belligerents a peace without victory.

31. Germany announces intention of sinking all vessels in war zone around British Isles.

May

9. Liberia breaks with Germany.

11. Russian Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates demands peace conference.

15. Gen. Petain succeeds Gen. Nivelle as Commander-in-Chief of French armies. Gen. Foch is appointed Chief of Staff.

16. Bullecourt captured by British in the Arras battles.

17. Honduras breaks with German.

18. Conscription bill signed by President Wilson.

19. Nicaragua breaks with Germany.

22-26. Italians advance on the Carso.

June

5. Registration day for new draft army in United States.

7. Messines-Wytschaete ridge in English hands.

8. Gen. Pershing, Commander-in-Chief of American expeditionary force, arrives in England en route to France.

18. Haiti breaks with Germany.

July

1. Russians begin offensive in Gallicia, Kerensky, Minister of War, leading in person.

3. American expeditionary force arrives in France.

6. Canadian House of Commons passes Compulsory Military Service Bill.

12. King Constantine of Greece abdicates in favour of his secondson, Alexander.

16-23. Retreat of Russians on a front of 155 miles.

20. Alexander Kerensky becomes Russian premier, succeeding Lvoff.

20. Drawing of draft number for American conscript army begins.

22. Siam at war with Germany and Austria.

31. Franco-British attack penetrates German lines on a 20-mile front.

August

1. Pope Benedict XV makes plea for peace on a basis of no annexation, no indemnity.

7. Liberia at war with Germany.

8. Canadian Conscription Bill passes its third reading in Senate.

14. China at war with Germany and Austria-Hungary.

15. Canadian troops capture Hill 70, dominating Lens.

19. Italians cross the Isonzo and take Austrian positions.

28. Pope Benedict's peace plea rejected by President Wilson.

September

3. Riga captured by Germans.

14. Paul Painleve becomes French premier, succeeding Ribot.

16. Russia proclaimed a republic by Kerensky.

20. Costa Rica breaks with Germany.

21. Gen. Tasker H. Bliss named Chief of Staff of the United States Army.

26. Zonnebeke, Polygon Wood and Tower Hamlets, east of Ypres, taken by British.

29. Turkish Mesopotamian army, under Ahmed Bey, captured by British.

October

6. Peru and Uruguay break with Germany.

9. Poelcapelle and other German positions captured in Franco- British attack.

17. Antilles, American transport, westbound from France, sunk by submarine; 67 lost.

23. American troops in France fire their first shot in trench warfare.

23. French advance northeast of Soissons.

24. Austro-Germans begin great offensive on Italian positions.

25. Italians retreat across the Isonzo and evacuate the Bainsizza Plateau.

26. Brazil at war with Germany.

31. Beersheba, in Palestine, occupied by British.

November

1. Germans abandon position on Chemin des Dames.

3. Americans in trenches suffer 20 casualties in German attacks.

6. Passchendaele captured by Canadians.

6. British Mesopotamian forces reach Tekrit, 100 miles northwest of Bagdad.

7. The Russian Bolsheviki, led by Lenin and Trotzsky, seize Potrograd and depose Kerensky.

8. Gen. Diaz succeeds Gen. Cadorna as Commander-in-Chief of Italian armies.

10. Lenin becomes Premier of Russia, succeeding Kerensky.

15. Georges Clemenceau becomes Premier of France, succeeding Painlove.

21. Ribecourt, Flesquieres, Havrincourt, Marcoing and other German positions captured by British.

23. Italians repulse Germans on the whole front from the Asiago Plateau to the Brenta River.

24. Cambrai menaced by British, who approach within three miles, capturing Bourlon Wood.

December

1. German East Africa reported completely conquered.

3. Russian Bolsheviki arrange armistice with Germans.

5. British retire from Bourlon Wood, Graincourt and other positions west of Cambrai.

7. Finland declares independence.

8. Jerusalem, held by the Turks for 673 years, surrenders to British, under Gen. Allenby.

10. Panama at war with Austria-Hungary.

11. United States at war with Austria-Hungary.

15. Armistice signed between Germany and Russia at Brest-Litovsk.

17. Coalition government of Sir Robert Borden is returned andconsidered confirmed in Canada.

1918

March

21. Ludendorff launches his series of major offensives, known as the 'Kaiserschlacht' in an effort to gain a decisive victory before the effect of the America entering into the War can be fully realised. Major successes are reported.

23. German offensive redirects towards Amiens and Paris.

28. German Operation 'Mars' repulsed at Arras.

April

4-5. Australians halt German advance at Villers Bretonneux.

9. German launch 'Georgette' offensive against British at Lys.

23-24. British attempt to blockade Ostend harbour fails.

May

27. German offensive 'Blucher' launched.

29. German troops advance to the Marne but are stopped by US Divisions.

June

15-16. Austrian offensive at Asiago defeated by combined British and French force.

July

15. Ludendorff launches final offensive. August

8. Anglo-French counter-attack at Amiens supported by heavy artillery and 400 tanks achieves major successes. Ludendorff describes it as 'the Black Day' for the German army.

September

12. American offensive at St Mihiel.

23. British 15th Cavalry Brigade attacks Haifa.

26. Allied offensive at Meuse-Argonne.

October

26. Ludendorff is dismissed.

28. Kiel mutiny by German sailors.

November

1. Americans breakthrough German defences at Meuse.

3. German Sailors Soviet take control of Kiel.

3. Americans cut vital Lille-Metz rail link.

11. On the eleventh hour, of the eleventh day, of the eleventh month, the Armistice is signed effectively halting the War. The final Treaty of Versailles, is signed on June 28, 1919.